Shared Boundaries • 1900-1949

The Qur'an 17:104 - states the land belongs to the Jewish people

Shared Boundaries • 1900-1949
Introduction: Cooperating on Common Ground

The British and French mandates in the Middle East - a system of trusteeships established by Article 22 of the Charter of the League of Nations - were the basis for establishing twentieth century European influence in that region. The Mandate System, however, was not the only way in which France and Britain were able to maintain control over Middle Eastern nations at the conclusion of World War One. Both France and Britain utilized treaties, as well as international organizations such as the League of Nations and the United Nations, to establish the mandate system and to help secure their influence in this region. While these organizations would later look to the power of treaties and resolutions to preserve peace, early treaties focused on perpetuating existing British and French influence in the area.

It is important to understand the role treaties and peace agreements played in shaping the current political culture in the Middle East. This section also aims to illustrate the manner in which the question of power in the Middle East has evolved from a discussion of regional control to an international issue as more and more nations have recognized their interests in the region. These readings provide a historical sampling of the cooperative efforts made towards bringing stability to the Middle East.

Framing Questions:
- How did early treaties balance British and French interests against those of the Middle Eastern nations?
- How successful were young middle-eastern nations at executing treaties and alliances amongst themselves to maintain the peace and unity of the region?


Readings

Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles was signed at the conclusion of World War I. While Germany agreed to an armistice on the basis of President Wilson's Fourteen Points Proposal, presented to Congress in November 1918, France and Great Britaindiffered in their goals for the peace process. The disagreement over terms of the process became manifest in the negotiations for a final peace treaty in Paris. Ultimately, the US chose not to ratify the treaty, and the treaty's harsh reparations and other stipulations eroded international diplomatic relations.

This web resource has a number of parts. The link is to the Menu page for the entire document. Part I contains the League of Nations charter, while the remainder of the sections discuss the settlements arranged for concluding the war. This reading can be accessed online, or portions may be printed.

Reading Guide Questions
• In parts II & III of the treaty, the author nations discuss the new international borders of Germany and its allies. In what ways does the treaty's division of Europe echo the League's dissection of the regions of the former Ottoman Empire? How does it appear different?
• In part XIII, the league discusses their desires for promoting economic equality through labor conditions. How are these provisions different from the economic power given to the Mandates? Which nations appear to have greater autonomy, European nations formerly allied with Germany, or the Middle Eastern Mandates?


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League of Nations Charter

In order to supplement students' study of both the Treaty of Versailles and the San Remo Mandates, it may be helpful to examine the League of Nations charter. The aims of the League, outlined in very beginning of the document, give a framework for the decision-making that led to the partition of the former Ottoman Empire among the European nations. Students may also want to refer to Article 23 and the list of objectives established by the League. In 1932, Iraq became the first Arab nation to join the League. The League's actions during the inter-war period had a number of direct effects upon the Middle Eastern region, both on member and non-member nations, and it is important to understand the principles underlying those actions. This document may be best accessed online.

Reading Guide Questions
• Examine the League's guiding principles in the preamble to the document. Do you consider these aims to be noble intentions? Does the use of Mandates appear to be in line with these goals?
• Articles 12-17 establish a precedent for conflict resolution among member nations. How do the principles asserted in these sections support the use of treaties and cooperative agreements in discussions with newly independent Middle Eastern nations?


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Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 - Anglo-Egyptian Treaty.doc

Though negotiated between Britain and Egypt, this treaty demonstrates the manner in which Britain sought to maintain its imperial influence in the Middle East. Despite the cooperative efforts of both governments, Britain's military presence in the Suez region diminished Egypt's power as an independent nation. By continuing to exert influence in the region despite its willingness to conduct treaty negotiations, Britain further undermined its credibility as an honest broker in the region. In Egypt, this distrust of British intentions gave rise to a significant opposition movement among more militant Muslim groups. This document can be printed and used as a handout.

Reading Guide Questions
• What were the terms of the 1936 treaty? How many British military units remained in the region?
• What was the popular reaction among the Egyptian population to the Wafd government's tolerance of British influence? How did nationalist sentiments perpetuate a resistance among groups such as the Muslim Brotherhood?


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1943 Unwritten Lebanese covenant- See 1943 Lebanese National Pact.doc

Rife with internal religious conflict, the Lebanese government made an unwritten pact after a series of meetings with Christian and Muslim leaders. The Pact is noteworthy in that it demonstrated a joint initiative by two opposing groups aimed at compromise. By agreeing not to seek independence with the aid of Western nations, Christian minorities in Lebanon were given the freedom to continue the current system of sectarian relations within the country. Despite its noble intentions at preventing conflict, the pact only postponed the conflict between Christians and Muslims that would eventually lead to a civil war in the nation. This document can be printed and used as a handout.

Reading Guide Questions
• Although the covenant emerged out of religious alliances, the 1943 agreement highlighted the willingness of Lebanese Christians and Muslims to work together in maintaining a peaceful status quo in the country. How did their agreeing to disagree on religion aid both sects?
• Why was this covenant more prudent than demanding that all Maronite Christians accept Islam as their new religion? In your opinion, is it possible for an agreement like this to endure, or do you think the civil war was inevitable? Explain.


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Arab League Charter


Formed in 1945 to help foster stronger relations among member Arab nations, the Arab league is a long-standing cooperative body in the Middle East. Original member nations included Syria, Transjordan, Iraq, Saudi-Arabia, Lebanon, and Yemen. The organization sought to further the goal of Arab representation among all of its member nations and help secure the interests of member nations against potential threats.

Reading Guide Questions
• What nations are eligible for membership under the original charter?
• What are the League's primary concerns, according to Article 2 of the charter? How does the League's representational structure reinforce those goals?
• Extension question- How does this charter compare with the missions of larger organizations such as the United Nations? How are the organizations similar? How are they different?


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United Nations Charter


This site has the United Nations Charter in a number of formats, including a high resolution file of the actual document. While students do not need to read the entire document, the Preamble and the Purposes and Principles sections give a brief description of the United Nations' goals as an international institution. It is important that students understand the aim of the UN in order to analyze the body's continued role in sponsoring peace agreements among Middle Eastern nations. This document can be accessed online or printed in a variety of formats.

Reading Guide Questions
• The United Nations took the place of the League of Nations in 1945. Examine the preamble to this document and list the goals of the UN.
• How does this document compare to the League of Nations' Covenant? What provisions does the UN charter make that the League of Nations did not discuss? What types of goals does the charter discuss, and how are the organization's purposes and principles the same or different?

Shared Boundaries • 1950-Present

Introduction: Striving for Common Ground

The past fifty years have produced a series of peace treaties and cease-fire agreements among Middle Eastern nations. Some agreements have provided longer-lasting results, while others have been undermined by a series of continuing conflicts. The documents included here trace the evolution of the Middle East Peacekeeping process from the conclusion of the first Palestine War to the most recent Road Map for peace in the region.

It is extremely important for students to observe and understand the lengths to which different nations have gone in their attempts to bring lasting resolution to the various battles that divide the Middle East. In some cases, peace solutions have evolved from the internal desires of the individual nations; in other instances, the agreements were reached after other nations have intervened. In examining both successful and unsuccessful treaties and agreements, students can gain a better understanding of the future potential for peace in this region.

Framing Questions
• How have peace negotiations between Palestinian and Israeli leaders evolved over the past fifty years?
• Why have nations such as Egypt and Israel succeeded at negotiating peace treaties while nations such as Israel and Palestine have had more difficulty maintaining lasting peace?
• Why have the series of U.N. resolutions enforcing an Israeli-Palestinian peace failed to achieve their goal of a lasting peace?

Readings

Baghdad Pact

Signed in September 1955, by Great Britain, Iraq, Iran, Turkey, and Pakistan, this treaty cemented the relationships between these initial nations, as well as any member of the "Arab League or any other State actively concerned with the security and peace in this region" fully recognized by the charter members. The Pact was meant to solidify the fact that peace and security between these nations was an integral part of the peace and security of all the nations, and the nations of the Middle East in particular. Beyond providing for peace among these nations, the pact was among the first cooperative steps taken on behalf of a group of Middle Eastern nations working towards a common goal. This reading can be accessed online or printed as a handout.

Reading Guide Questions
• What type of cooperation did Arab League nations expect in return for signing this agreement? Where did the league draw its model for establishing friendly relations?
• What role did the United Kingdom play in this agreement? Why might involvement in such an agreement have been in the British interest?


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UN Security Council Resolution 242 (1967)


Passed at the conclusion of the Six Days War, this seminal resolution came to serve as the basis for all UN proceedings aimed at achieving a peaceful solution to the Arab-Israeli conflict. This document can be printed as an acrobat file for use as a handout.

Reading Guide Questions
• What does the Resolution state regarding the peace and security of all nations? How does the Resolution view Israel's acquisition of land?
• What is the intended role of the special representative to the region, according to this resolution?


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UN Security Council Resolution 338 (1973)

Passed in order to achieve a cease-fire in the Yom Kippur War (1973), this resolution demanded a conclusion to military conflict, as well as the implementation of Security Council Resolution 242. The resolution reaffirmed the need for a combined, cooperative effort to achieve a peaceful solution to conflict in the region. This document can be printed for classroom use.

Reading Guide Questions
• How does this document both reaffirm and modify Resolution 242?
• What provision does the resolution make for the need for a lasting peace? Does the Resolution provide any guidance for such action?


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Camp David Accords- Preamble and Initial Framework


The first significant framework for peace in the Arab-Israeli conflict was set forth by Muhammad Anwar al-Sadat, President of the Arab Republic of Egypt, and Menachem Begin, Prime Minister of Israel in a meeting with US President Jimmy Carter, at Camp David from September 5 to September 17, 1978. The three leaders presented their framework, along with an invitation for other nations involved in the conflict to adhere to the terms outlined in the proposal. This document can be viewed online, or printed if desired.

Reading Guide Questions
• Examine the guiding principles for the pursuit of peace, as they are outlined in the beginning of the document. How do these assertions build upon the earlier UN Security Council Resolutions 242 and 338?
• What does the document assert are the necessary requirements for peace in this region? How will meeting these requirements aid in conducting friendly negotiations between nations in this region?
• What were the terms of the agreement between Egypt and Israel? How did they handle the distribution of disputed territories? What concessions did both sides make in the negotiation process?


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1979 Egypt-Israel Treaty

Egyptian President Anwar al-Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin concluded the Camp David Summit by signing an agreement that they would reach a Peace Treaty between their nations within three months of the creation of the Camp David Framework for peace. This document provides the framework for the eventual treaty. The final Treaty was signed in March 1979. This document can be viewed online or printed as a handout.

Reading Guide Questions
• What types of arrangements did Israel and Egypt still have to agree to, according to this framework? What types of resources would the two nations have to work to share? What types of free-passage were necessary for fulfilling the framework?
• What provisions were made for sustaining forces in the region? How many troops were both sides allowed to leave stationed?
• How do you think this framework compares with earlier negotiations? Do you consider it to be more or less effective? Why or why not?


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1988 UN Iran-Iraq Cease-fire agreement, part I and part II
United Nations Iran-Iraq Observation Group- (UNIIMOG) Mission page


These two cease-fire agreements both concluded the military conflict between Iran and Iraq and established the United Nations Iran-Iraq Observation Group. The agreement called for the formation of UNNIMOG, the United Nations Iran-Iraq Military Observer Group, charged with the task of "verifying, confirming, and supervising the ceasefire and the withdrawal of all forces to the internationally recognized boundaries, pending a comprehensive settlement." UNIIMOG was responsible for monitoring the terms of the cease-fire and insuring that both governments held to their portions of the agreement. The operation was phased out by the end of 1991, as UNSCOM, the United Nations Special Commission, was created to monitor Iraq's use of nuclear and chemical weapons under the terms of UN resolution 687.

Reading Guide Questions
• What are the terms of the ceasefire agreement, as discussed in these two documents?
• Given the fact that the conflict had evolved into a war of attrition, do you find it surprising that the cease-fire concluded the conflict along these terms?
• Does the agreement establish a lasting peace between these two countries? Why do you think so? Why not?


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1993 Oslo Accords- Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government Arrangements


The Oslo Accords were intended to serve as a framework for the on-going peace process and present a framework for Israeli-Arab cooperation. The plans provided guidance for self-government, as well as an eventual Palestinian state. Despite the workability of the two-state solution, more radical groups were staunchly opposed to the two-state solution. Students should be familiar with the Oslo Accords as the beginning of an attempt to establish a permanent Palestinian state in the West Bank and Gaza Strip territories. This document is rather lengthy, and therefore may be best accessed online.

Reading Guide Questions
• What was the aim of the Oslo negotiations, according to the first section of the Declaration? How does the Declaration describe the mutual goals of both Israelis and Palestinians?
• What time period does the Declaration establish for a transitional period? Why does the agreement use the term "Interim government" in describing the Palestinian government?
• What provisions does the document make for the settling of disputes between Israelis and Palestinians? What is the role of other nations in this region in this agreement, according to this document?





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1994 Israeli- Jordan Peace Treaty


On October 26, 1994, Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and Prime Minister Abdul-Salam Majali signed the Treaty of Peace between the State of Israel and the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. The treaty was only the Second signed by Israel since its independence. The treaty aims to establish and maintain good neighborly relations between the two nations by cooperating in many spheres on joint projects. This is an important document in tracing the emergence of peace between Israeli and its neighboring Muslim nations. Due to length, this document may be best accessed online.

Reading Guide Questions
• Examine the reasons for pursuing peaceful relations. Why do both Israel and Jordan find peace to be in the mutual best-interest of these two nations?
• Do you think the "General Principles" provide adequate support for a lasting agreement between these two countries? How does this agreement improve upon prior agreements between Israel and Muslim nations?
• What types of cooperation does the treaty discuss? How will these new elements of cooperation benefit both nations? What concessions are made to preserve the cultural and religious desires of both groups?


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UN Security Council Resolution 986- UN Resolution 986.pdf

Initially passed in 1995, this Security Council Resolution established the Oil for Food program in Iraq in which established a means of distributing humanitarian aid to segments of the Iraqi population plagued by deteriorating nutrition and health. This document can be accessed online or printed.

Reading Guide Questions
• How does this agreement use existing Iraqi assets to provide for the Iraqi population? In theory, does this agreement seem like an effective way to provide food and necessities to the region?
• What is the danger of the treaty in terms of who remains authorized to distribute food and provisions? Might it be possible for the government to horde the provisions granted under the agreement?


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The Israeli-Palestinian Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip (OSLO II)(1995)


The "Interim Agreement" was signed in Septemeber, 1995. Under the accord, Israel was first scheduled to re-deploy from the major Palestinian population centers in the West Bank (the "second redeployment") and later from all rural areas (the "third redeployment"), with the exception of Israeli settlements and the Israeli-designated military areas. The Agreement divided the West Bank and Gaza into three areas, and assigned distinctive borders and rules for administration and security controls within these regions.

Reading Guide Questions
• Compare this document to the initial OSLO Accords. What provisions does this document include that the initial agreement did not make? Are there any new dates or requirements?
• Which nations witnessed and signed the agreement? What does this mean about the international community's opinion of this document? Does the initiative for this agreement appear to be internally or externally motivated?


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Wye River Memorandum


This document was intended to help implement the OSLO II "Interim Agreement" on the West Bank and Gaza Strip of September 28, 1995, between Israel and the PLO. Signed in Washington on October 23, 1998, the Wye River Memorandum set further stipulations and timelines in order to aid Israelis and Palestinians in meeting the terms of the Interim Agreement. Due to length, this document may be best viewed online.

Reading Guide Questions
• Compare this document to the earlier OSLO I and OSLO II agreements. What provisions are added in order to help Israelis and Palestinians meet the terms of the Interim Agreement? What does the document state about the use of terrorism?
• According to this document, what is the deadline for reaching an agreement on giving Palestine a permanent nation status? What provisions does the document make for achieving such a goal by that deadline?


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2003 Roadmap for Peace

The most recent Middle East peace plan, known as the "Roadmap," was written under the endorsement of the "Quartet" powers: the United States, European Union, United Nations, and Russia. The goal of the plan is to arrive at a comprehensive peace by 2005. The plan discusses the hope that peace will bring the simultaneous "emergence of an independent, democratic, and viable Palestinian state living side by side in peace and security with Israel and its other neighbors." The United States, the European Union, the United Nations, and Russia will meet regularly to oversee the implementation of this plan.

Teachers and students alike should be familiar with the current plan for achieving peace in this region. This document can be printed as a handout, or accessed online.

Reading Guide Questions
• How does this document incorporate existing principles for peace, as established in the OSLO and Wye River agreements? Does this document seek a longer-lasting peace? Has the strategy for achieving peace changed?
• What types of institutional changes must occur during the second phase of the roadmap? What obstacles do you think the Quartet might face in this stage?
• What would the benefits of successfully reaching Stage III of the roadmap be? Have the peace negotiations reached this stage?
• Bonus Discussion- Do you think this plan will succeed? Why or why not? Pay attention to the progression of Israeli-Palestinian agreements over the past 50 years in framing your response.


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Additional Links

Exploration is the essential first step in reaching a greater understanding of this complex region. We offer these additional links for that purpose.

Bulletin of Regional Cooperation in the Middle East

A good resource for researching the history of cooperation in the Middle East, this bulletin has articles on a number of national and international debates over Middle East policy. Because the path towards cooperative borders has been riddled with obstacles, this periodical provides helpful information in sorting out the various roadblocks to peace.

Foreign Policy Article- After War Policy in Iraq

The jury is still out on the current War on Iraq and whether the Bush administration has achieved its goals. This article presents a series of policies that the United States should consider in establishing a new government in post-war Iraq. Though not directly tied to the Arab-Israeli conflict, the U.S. presence in Iraq has the potential to remain one of the largest shaping forces in the peace process. This article may be helpful for advanced students seeking greater insight into the complexities of the situation in Iraq.

Country Profiles

The Country Profiles page of this unit provides links to additional information on each nation in the region from both the US State Department and the US Central Intelligence Agency.